Here’s the Java version first:

 Missing content

Here is one particular output (your results will differ):

$ java edu.lmu.cs.sorting.Bozosorter
Size    Avg # of swaps
 1                0.00
 2                0.46
 3                3.94
 4               22.48
 5              114.64
 6              804.12
 7             6239.96
 8            49741.50
 9           404976.52
10          3959040.06

I also wrote this in Python. But it gets really slow once the size gets to be 9, unless you use PyPy.

from random import randint, shuffle

def bozosort(a):
    n = len(a) - 1
    swaps = 0
    while not all(a[i] <= a[i+1] for i in range(n)):
        i, j = randint(0, n), randint(0, n)
        a[i], a[j] = a[j], a[i]
        swaps += 1
    return swaps

def main():
    NUM_TRIALS, NUM_ITERATIONS = 10, 20

    print('Size    Avg # of swaps')
    for size in range(1, NUM_TRIALS):
        swaps = 0
        for _ in range(1, NUM_ITERATIONS):
            swaps += bozosort([randint(0,1000) for i in range(size)])
        print(f'{size:2d}{swaps/NUM_ITERATIONS:20.2f}')

main()

Since the problem asked you to treat characters as code points, it’s reasonable to infer we’re moving into the realm of encrypting real data, and not just the boring set of characters A-Z. Code points are integers, so we implement both our messages and keys as arrays of integers, not strings or arrays of characters. Here is my Java solution:

/**
 * An auto-key Vigenere cipher. During encryption, the input text is used for
 * the key stream after the initial key is used up. During decryption, we get
 * the key characters from the plaintext we are recovering.
 */
public class AutoKeyVigenere {

    public static int[] encipher(int[] message, int[] key) {
        return encipher(message, key, 1);
    }

    public static int[] decipher(int[] cipher, int[] key) {
        return encipher(cipher, key, -1);
    }

    private static int[] encipher(int[] input, int[] key, int multiplier) {
        if (key.length == 0) {
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Key cannot be empty");
        }
        int[] output = new int[input.length];
        for (int i = 0, n = input.length; i < n; i++) {
            int block = i < key.length ? key[i] : multiplier == 1 ? input[i - key.length] : output[i - key.length];
            output[i] = block * multiplier + input[i];
        }
        return output;
    }
}

And a unit test for it:

import java.util.Arrays;
import org.junit.Assert;
import org.junit.Test;

public class AutoKeyVigenereTest {

    @Test
    public void testRoundTrip() {
        int[][] messages = { { 34634634, 423423, 23423525, 4574574, 47467, 0, 45, 423523677, 97938746 },
                { 4, 3, 7, 6, 5, 8, 9, 66, 54, 32, 1132, 87, 898, 87, 787, 878789, 9, 89, 8, 89, 89, 1 }, { 7 }, {} };
        int[][] keys = { { 546363434, 3545, 204311244 }, { 0xffffffff, 0xffffff33 } };
        for (int[] message : messages) {
            for (int[] key : keys) {
                int[] cipher = AutoKeyVigenere.encipher(message, key);
                int[] recovered = AutoKeyVigenere.decipher(cipher, key);
                Assert.assertTrue(Arrays.equals(message, recovered));
            }
        }
    }

    @Test(expected = IllegalArgumentException.class)
    public void testEmptyKey() {
        AutoKeyVigenere.encipher(new int[] { 3453, 4234235, 123 }, new int[] {});
    }
}

Now if you are not yet using Eclipse or NetBeans or IntelliJ or other IDE yet (C’mon people it’s time), then you can run this on the command line like this (assuming you downloaded JUnit):

$ javac -cp ~/lib/junit-4.10.jar:. crypto/AutoKeyVigenere.java crypto/AutoKeyVigenereTest.java
$ java -cp ~/lib/junit-4.10.jar:. org.junit.runner.JUnitCore edu.lmu.cs.crypto.AutoKeyVigenereTest
JUnit version 4.10
..
Time: 0.003

OK (2 tests)

The Python version will appear shortly.

p = BigInt(23847623789462398745236743254827634647)
q = BigInt(80147623789462398745236743254827634711)
N = p * q
t = (p-1)*(q-1)
e = 65537
@assert(gcd(e, t) == 1)
d = invmod(e,t)
println("Public key is ($N, $e)")
println("Private key is ($N, $d)")

The output is

Public key is (1911330379750465988511865475607817924950038631764482538080744390093883432017,
7)
Private key is (1911330379750465988511865475607817924950038631764482538080744390093883432017,
546094394214418853860532993030805121384583824053016497311505972452636617903)

1. Digital signatures can be used for authentication, provided the keys stay secret.
2. You are given $s = m^d \bmod N$, $(N,e)$, and $m$. Verification is simply a matter of checking whether $s^e \bmod N = m$. Or more intuitively, you got a signature made by applying someone’s private key to a message, so undo that by applying the public key.
3. Cool, RSA by hand! We make make it super simple. I’ll sign my name "ray" with encoding {a:1, r:2, y:3} and RSA with $p=5$, $q=11$, $e=3$. So $N=pq=55$ and $d=\mathrm{invmod}(3,40)=27$. Now I’ll sign $(2,1,3)$ as follows: $(2^{27}\bmod 55, 1^{27}\bmod 55, 1^{27}\bmod 55) = (18,1,42)$. Now, let’s check: $(18^{3}\bmod 55, 1^{3}\bmod 55, 42^{3}\bmod 55) = (2,1,3)$. All good.
4. There was a typo in this problem. The public key should have been (391,17). Anyway, getting $d$ is a quick Julia computation away:

   julia> factor(391)
   Dict{Int64,Int64} with 2 entries:
     23 => 1
     17 => 1
   
   julia> invmod(17, 22*16)
   145
   

   So the answer is 145.

1. Eve can just ask Bob to sign the messages that Alice encrypted with Bob’s public key. Bob’s signing of the message is exactly applying his secret key to it, which decrypts the message for Eve. Stupid Bob.
2. Eve knows $(N,e)$. She intercepts $m^e \bmod N$ from Alice, then does this:
   • Picks a value $x$ coprime to $N$.
   • Computes $x^e \bmod N$.
   • Multiplies that with the ciphertext: $(x^e \bmod N)(m^e \bmod N) = (xm)^e \bmod N$.
   • Gets Bob to sign that: $((xm)^e \bmod N)^d \bmod N = (xm)^{ed} \bmod N = (xm) \bmod N$.
   • Computes $y = \mathrm{invmod}(x,N)$
   • Multiplies that with the result of the previous step: $(y \bmod N)((xm) \bmod N) = (yxm) \bmod N = m \bmod N = m$.
   Stupid Bob.

def majority_naive(a):
    for x in a:
        if a.count(x) > len(a) // 2:
            return x
    return None

def majority_linearithmic(a):
    if len(a) == 0:
        return None
    if len(a) == 1:
        return a[0]
    half = len(a) // 2
    left = majority_linearithmic(a[0:half])
    right = majority_linearithmic(a[half:])
    if left == right:
        return left
    if a.count(left) > half:
        return left
    if a.count(right) > half:
        return right
    return None

from collections import Counter
def majority_with_dictionary(a):
    counts = Counter()
    for x in a:
        counts[x] += 1
    for value, count in counts.items():
        if count > len(a) // 2:
            return value
    return None

def majority_linear(a):
    count = 0
    for x in a:
        if count == 0:
            candidate = x;
        if x == candidate:
            count += 1
        else:
            count -= 1
    if a and a.count(candidate) > len(a) // 2:
        return candidate
    return None

tests = [
    ([], None),
    ([1], 1),
    ([4,3], None),
    ([4,4], 4),
    ([4,4,1], 4),
    ([4,0,4], 4),
    ([4,1,8], None),
    ([3,3,3,3,3,0,0,0,0,0], None),
    ([3,3,3,3,3,0,0,0,3,0], 3),
    ([1,1,1,3,3,2,2,3,3,3,2,3,3], 3),
    ([1,1,1,1,3,2,2,3,3,3,2,3,3], None),
]

# Tests
for fun in (majority_naive, majority_linearithmic, majority_with_dictionary, majority_linear):
    for a, expected in tests:
        if fun(a) != expected:
            print(f'Ooops, {fun.__name__}({a}) != {expected}')